China is experiencing a historic resurgence today. In a matter of decades, it transformed from a poor developing country into a global superpower. For many Chinese people, this is not a completely new development, but a return to former strength. For centuries, China was among the most economically significant nations in the world - until the Opium Wars led the country into a long period of crisis. This was followed by decades of political instability, military defeats, and economic weakness. The memory of this continues to shape China's self-perception to this day.
When China was among the world's strongest economic powers
Until the 19th century, China was economically and organizationally ahead of many European states. The empire had a highly developed administration, huge cities, and an extensive trade system. Long before Europe, the Chinese invented paper money, the compass, printing, and gunpowder.
Economically, China was a heavyweight. Historians estimate that around 1800, the country about a third contributed to global economic output.
China exported three goods that the whole world desired: tea, silk, and porcelain. In Europe, they were considered luxury goods. Tea, in particular, enjoyed extraordinary popularity in Great Britain. The problem from the British perspective: China only bought a few goods from Europe. The Chinese economy was largely self-sufficient in many areas. Payment was therefore mostly made with silver – the currency of the time in China.
Estimates suggest that around 40 percent of the silver mined between 1500 and 1800 flowed to China. For Great Britain, this trade deficit increasingly became an economic problem.
China rejects European demands
The self-confidence China displayed at the time was evident in 1793. British King George III sent a delegation to Chinese Emperor Qianlong. Great Britain wanted better trade conditions and a permanent trading post in China. The Emperor rejected the demands – in a remarkably arrogant tone:
„As your envoy can see with his own eyes, we possess everything. I place no value on foreign or cleverly invented objects, and I have no use for your country's production.“
In Great Britain, the rejection was perceived as an expression of Chinese arrogance. The country already saw itself as a rising world power at the time. However, China treated European envoys like petitioners.
Trade relations with China became increasingly problematic for Great Britain. Although many European states advocated free trade at the time, this principle often only applied as long as it served their own interests. When states rejected Western demands or appeared too economically powerful, European powers frequently resorted to political pressure or military force.
How the British tried to open up China with opium
The British eventually found a commodity to balance their trade deficit: opium. The drug was produced in British India and then smuggled into China illegally.
The consequences were severe. Millions of Chinese became addicted. Contemporary reports describe officials, soldiers, and merchants neglecting their work and spending large portions of their wealth on opium. At the same time, silver now flowed out of China instead of into it.
The Chinese government therefore tried to stop the trade. In 1839, Emperor Daoguang sent the official Lin Zexu to Canton. He had large quantities of opium seized and publicly destroyed.
The British did not like this at all. The British government argued that China had destroyed British property and hindered free trade. Officially, it was also about the alleged mistreatment of British citizens. However, the main driving force behind it was economic interests: Britain simply wanted to continue selling opium to China.
Opium Wars Explained: Military Superiority Against a Weakened Empire
The First Opium War began in 1840. The British Navy was technologically far superior to the Chinese forces. Modern steamships faced outdated weapons. Many Chinese soldiers still fought modern artillery with old muskets and traditional weapons.
However, the problems were not solely due to military backwardness. The Qing Dynasty had already been struggling for years with corruption, administrative issues, and internal tensions. Many regional authorities operated inefficiently while the population grew significantly, leading to increased social conflicts.
In 1842, China was forced to capitulate and sign the Treaty of Nanking – one of the so-called „unequal treaties.“ China had to pay high indemnities, open several ports to British trade, and cede Hong Kong to Great Britain.
Hong Kong: From British Outpost to Chinese Special Administrative Region
Under British rule, Hong Kong rapidly developed into one of Asia's most important trading centers. The British expanded the port city into an international financial hub. In 1898, Great Britain also acquired large parts of the surrounding area as a leased territory for 99 years. Only in 1997 were the territories returned to China.
To this day, Hong Kong enjoys a special status. Under the „One Country, Two Systems“ principle, the city is supposed to retain its own economic and legal systems. For a long time, Hong Kong therefore had significantly more political and social freedoms than mainland China.
However, in recent years, the Chinese government has significantly expanded Beijing's influence. Critics therefore speak of a gradual restriction of previously existing autonomy.
Why the Second Opium War occurred despite everything
After the First Opium War, Great Britain had already gained significant advantages. However, the British wanted to open more ports, gain free access to the Chinese market, and establish diplomatic missions directly in Beijing. Because China refused, the situation escalated again.
In 1856, the Second Opium War broke out. The British used a comparatively minor incident involving the Chinese ship „Arrow“ as a pretext. And this time, the French were also involved. Officially, this was due to the murder of a French missionary in China. In reality, France's motives were the same as Great Britain's: greater influence and expanded trading rights to economically exploit China.
The Second Opium War was even more humiliating for China than the first: British and French troops marched all the way to Beijing and plundered the emperor's Old Summer Palace. The event is still regarded in China today as a symbol of colonial humiliation.
The Opium Wars were the beginning of China's „century of humiliation.“
The Opium Wars marked the beginning of a long crisis for the Chinese Empire. Western powers, Russia, and later Japan, forced China to grant ever more trade privileges. The country increasingly lost control over parts of its economy and foreign policy.
At the same time, internal problems intensified. Centuries of imperial rule were growing weaker. Corruption, famines, population growth, and regional uprisings further burdened the state.
The Taiping Rebellion between 1850 and 1864 was particularly devastating. The civil war claimed an estimated 20 million lives and is one of the deadliest conflicts in history.
Another humiliation was the so-called Boxer Rebellion: At the end of the 19th century, an anti-Western movement formed in China that sought to push back the influence of foreign powers and Christian missionaries. An international alliance of Japan, Russia, Great Britain, France, Italy, the USA, the German Empire, and Austria-Hungary violently suppressed the rebellion in 1900. China had to pay high reparations and lost further sovereignty.
In the course of the Boxer Rebellion, German Emperor Wilhelm II also delivered his infamous Hun speech: In it, he called for German soldiers deployed to China to engage in particularly harsh warfare. He essentially said that the soldiers should behave „like Huns“:
„No quarter will be given. Prisoners will not be taken!“ - Kaiser Wilhelm II. in Bremerhaven, 1900
Although Austria-Hungary participated with only a few naval vessels, it benefited from trade privileges like the other powers. Chinese art objects also found their way to Vienna through soldiers. Individual pieces in the Weltmuseum in the Hofburg Palace in Vienna are today associated with the Boxer Rebellion and the looting that occurred at the time.
The suppression of the Boxer Rebellion took place during the height of imperialism. European powers, as well as Japan and the USA, were competing worldwide at the time for colonies, trade privileges, and political influence.
The End of the Empire and the Path to Poverty
The Qing Dynasty finally collapsed in 1911. This marked the end of millennia of imperial rule in China. However, it did not bring stability. The fall of the empire was followed by civil wars, power struggles among regional military leaders, and later the Japanese invasion of China during World War II.
In 1949, the Communists under Mao Zedong finally won the civil war. Mao promised to make China strong and independent again. In fact, he succeeded in politically uniting the country. Economically, however, many of his political campaigns led to disaster.
The „Great Leap Forward“ between 1958 and 1962, in particular, ended in a massive famine. Historians estimate that between 15 and 45 million people died during this period. At that time, China was one of the poorest countries in the world. Large parts of the population lived in extreme poverty in rural areas.
The resurgence – and why the history still resonates today
Only after Mao's death, under Deng Xiaoping starting in 1978, did the economic resurgence begin. China gradually introduced market economy reforms, allowed private companies, and developed into one of the world's most important manufacturing locations within a few decades.
Today, China once again sees itself as a global great power. The memory of the Opium Wars and the so-called „Century of Humiliation“ plays an important role in its national identity.
In Chinese schools, museums, and speeches by state leaders, this narrative continues to hold a significant place to this day. The central message is: China was once strong, was weakened by foreign powers, and has now risen again.
This is why the Chinese leadership often reacts sensitively to foreign criticism or political interference. For example, the country has been resisting interference from foreign states in the East China Sea for many years and South China Sea, which China considers its sovereign territories. Likewise, President Xi Jinping rejects criticism from foreign states regarding the human rights violations that have existed in China for years. As early as 2022, when asked about it, he said that countries do not „overbearing editors“ need.
Finally, the Chinese leadership also uses the memory of the Opium Wars in the Taiwan question: China claims Taiwan for itself and also argues for territorial integrity here. Many political observers therefore criticize that China is using its historical experience of victimhood to legitimize an increasingly confrontational foreign policy.
However, the Chinese leadership itself mostly does not present its policies as aggressive, but rather as the defense of legitimate interests and the correction of historical injustices.
More on modern China:
https://www.ardsounds.de/sendung/welt-macht-china/urn:ard:show:b5d8f07b1baa22d0/
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